Media reports state that the government has identified 60,000 families to be evicted from prime lands in Colombo. The properties are to be released for ‘development’ activities as part of a broader initiative to beautify Colombo under the ‘City of Colombo Development Plan’[1]. In accelerating this Plan, the Urban Development Authority (UDA) and the Land Reclamation and Development Board have been brought under the Defence Ministry. Since 2010, it is reported that households in parts of Slave Island, Wanathamulle, Central Colombo and other areas have been evicted from their homes and places of livelihood activities.[2] Many of those affected are the poorest and most vulnerable in the city including low income wage earners, children, the elderly and the disabled.
The National Involuntary Resettlement Policy (NIRP) was formulated in 2000, adopted by the government and approved by the Cabinet in 2001. It provides principles, rules and norms to protect people displaced by development projects. The policy requires implementing agencies to submit detailed Resettlement Action Plans (RAPs) for all projects displacing people and requires project authorities to pay compensation for land at replacement value. The policy specifically states that impoverishment should not take place as a result of compulsory land acquisition and that people ‘who do not have documented title to land should receive fair and just treatment’.[3] The policy also assigns specific institutional responsibilities to the Ministry of Lands, the Central Environmental Authority and Project Implementing Agencies.
The NIRP is not averse to development activity but was developed to safeguard those who are likely to suffer the negative impacts in the process of development, specifically when land acquisition occurs. The policy states that those negatively impacted should be compensated and helped to restart their lives and livelihoods at new locations.
On the onset it appears that the NIRP should be implemented to current slum clearance programs in Colombo and the suburbs. This raises an important question; why is the NIRP not being implemented? On the assumption that the broader objective of ‘development’ is to reduce poverty and inequality, should we not also recognise that ‘development activities’ can benefit some sections of the population at the expense of others? Should we not recognise those who are likely to be the most adversely affected are those at the bottom of the socio-economic ladder anyway?Should we not improve their quality of life and make development inclusive?
Given that media reports indicate that this urban clearance program is to be extended to other cities in Sri Lanka[4], it is likely to be the poorest and most vulnerable that are going to be the worst affected. Can we justify such ‘development’ programs?
Jul 04, 2011 Posted by Shakila Samarakoon (Student, University of Colombo)
English
Sinhala
At the early stages, the development dialogs were confined to economic development. Development which was thus limited to economic boost was then broadened and was discussed in multiple dimensions after the end of the second and third world wars. Therefore, the concept of development is hereinafter is analyzed as a social development which includes economic growth.
According to the authors of the development dictionary, development is defined as "creating an environment that enables global social growth". As said by Michael Edmond "Development is increasing positive opportunities where material needs are minimized and capacity to live is increased and thereby a process which constructs skillful population". Under the title of positive change in development he emphasizes that every individual should be subject to positive change.
However, the definition of the development that the majority is agreed to is built upon below aspects.
1.free from poverty
2.enable to be loved and possess ownership
3.To be free from the power controls that liberates accountability
4.be free from the influences of others and be one's own control
However, the development concept is now modernized. Human centered development is more prioritized than the material centered development. In other words, through modernization of the development dialog, the development activities are linked with the process of securing the human rights. Hence, the rights based approach is used in decision making processes of the development projects. However, ignoring the securing of rights in the large scale development projects resulted in violating of the rights.
Even though rights based approach for development seeks to secure the rights of people when making and implementing development decisions it is challenged by the nature of the government. For instance whether the development is given priority over democracy is questioned when the situation of Singapore is observed
When a government is built the success of the country’s development is in doubt as main focus of the government being the economic growth and not the democratic traits.
However, Southern global development witnesses a suppression of securing human rights as a result of development decisions. It is mainly because these countries, in comparison with the northern countries, suffer from an economic deficit to which they pay a considerable attention. Thus rights being violated due to the development policies could be observed. In reality, countries which lack development have ignored the rights based approach in decision making related to development.
The current development projects and socio economic issues generated through them is a good example to the above mentioned situation. These development projects violate peoples’ rights. In the context of a renaissance that began after the end of the civil war, foreign investments and tourism have gained a paramount importance. Consequently, the Government of Sri Lanka pays a significant attention on the development of infrastructure where constructing power plants and highways are a testimony. These development decisions challenge the rights of people. Constructing the Colombo-Kandy highway sabotaging the rights of the residents who lived either side of the highway could be drawn as an example. This reflects the violation of the right to economic security, right to live in an environment of his/ her choice and the right to participate in government decision making process.
In this context, it is problematic as to how the decisions would be made by the government that was elected from the votes of the general public. According to Michael Sarma a population of 1-2 million per year is displaced as a result of the development decisions. The right to housing, and other rights of these displaced population is infringed and at times are being stigmatized. For instance, they are excluded from sphere of the government responsibilities as they are ‘illegal residents’
The issues are as follows,
1)What form of role does the government of Sri Lanka play in the context of protection of rights of citizens?
2)Is there any social justice in defining the public as illegal residents?
3)Is there any negative impact on the illegal residents by the development policies?
Is there any basis or ability to be organized to secure the rights of those who are subject to this impact?
Mar 01, 2011 Posted by Tanuja Thurairajah (Independent Writer, N/A)
English
Tamil
The cause and effect dimension of the conflict-poverty symbiosis has been an integral aspect of the poverty discourse in Sri Lanka. The end of the protracted civil war in Sri Lanka while presenting a tentative but renewed sense of hope has also thrown in many challenges especially in terms of the rehabilitation, reconstruction and resettlement processes. Interwoven into these challenges is the issue of dealing with poverty, both in the economic as well as in the social aspect.
Jaffna is considered one of the more affluent districts in comparison to the other districts in the North. Nevertheless, poverty bred by inequalities in income, employment, infrastructure, health and educational facilities is seeped within the torn post-war social fabric; a poverty that remains distinct from the regions removed from the direct ravages of war. Prior to the eruption of the civil conflict, Jaffna enjoyed a robust economy led by fisheries, agriculture and market oriented cash crop cultivation. Ahilan Kadirgamar in his article ‘Waiting for the Jaffna Train’ (February 2010, Himal Southasian) observes that, of the approximately 600,000 people living in Jaffna, 50% receive foreign remittances support from relatives living abroad. The rest of the population to a larger extent suffer from some form of economic hardship and the situation worsens in the context of the war displaced people coming from government run camps.
The key issues in terms of the struggling Jaffna economy seem to revolve around fishing and agriculture. While restrictions on fishing areas have, to a large extent been lifted, other contentious issues such as encroachment of fishermen from the South as well as the depletion of the sea’s resources by South Indian fishermen using large trawlers (Livelihood of Fishermen in the Palk Bay- Sri Lankan Tamil Perspective, V. Suryanarayan, Paper No: 4304, South Asia Analysis Group, January 28, 2011) continue to remain unaddressed.
In terms of agriculture, the main problem revolves around access to lands due to encroachment, lack of/or unclear deeds and restrictions due to High Security Zones (HSZs). Furthermore, a large number of lands are owned by people living abroad affecting an unhealthy disparity between ‘unavailable’ landowners and people in urgent need of land. The issue of access to land is further heightened by caste politics as an emergent social issue in post-war Jaffna and becomes increasingly contentious in the context of the displaced Muslims returning to their native soil who struggle to identify their original lands and have to deal with encroachment and/or new owners as a result of their vacant land being resold prior to the final offensive. A growing anti-Muslim feeling amidst the Tamil community has also been observed which finds its roots in the clamour for resources and opportunities.
Indications of foreign investment especially from the Indians with a pledge towards rebuilding of the Northern Railway lines (Madhu-Talaimannar, Omanthai-Pallai, (http://www.hcicolombo.org/index.php?option=com_pages&id=74) and the reactivation of the industrial park in Atchuvely, Jaffna (http://print.dailymirror.lk/news/news/32159.html and http://www.defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20110105_01) are steps towards re-establishing a healthy economic base for the Jaffna region. Nevertheless, this positivity is strained by the continuous issues such as increasing tensions in Jaffna (as noted in Speech in Parliament - adjournment motion debate, TNA National list parliamentarian M.A Sumanthiran, January 20, 2011) due to targeted intimidation of business people and social/political activists which are serious obstacles for civil society mobilisation and the revival of entrepreneurship, deemed integral towards economic stability and eventually, the reduction of poverty.
This discussion raises the following questions;
• Can the poverty issue merely be addressed through equable distribution of resources and a sustainable economic base?
• Can social issues such as caste as well reactionary politics be considered merely as the effects of poverty and non-equable distribution of resources?
• What would be a suitable economic model for the Jaffna region, agriculture/fisheries based or knowledge based?
• Can there be an exchange between ‘agriculture’ and ‘trade’, traditionally monopolised by the Tamil and Muslim communities, not only in terms of economic diversification but also as an option towards identifying solutions for caste and ethnicity based issues?
• The regular flow of individual foreign remittances also creates dependency and stifles local entrepreneurship. On the other hand an increasing interest by the Tamil diaspora to contribute towards the development of their localities has been observed. What would be the measures that would ensure that these efforts happen in a streamlined and sustainable manner?
The Poverty Portal team invites you to have your say on the issue of solid waste management in Sri Lanka and or responsibility towards the issue. We would like you to think about this issue in relation to a video clip we found on Youtube.
We call it different things formally and informally - garbage, waste, solid waste, biodegradable waste, non-biodegradable waster etc. But do we really stop to think about how it affects our living environment and our overall wellbeing? Or do we only complain about how the local council does not come often enough to collect our garbage and if they do we have to pay them to take it away?
This clip draws our attention to the issue of waste management in public places, especially national heritage sites. As tourists (this means us too when we visit such places) there is an urgent need to consider the implications of waste generation and management within these environs.
This blog discussion is open to anyone who feels they have something to say about the issue of solid waste management (SWM). We are interested in hearing your reactions to the video and about how you relate that back to your own lives, environments and wellbeing. We encourage you to think about the following questions when you respond (but feel free to speak your mind!)
Why is solid waste management such a problem in Sri Lanka? Where is it mostly a problem?
Who should be responsible for SWM? Why?
Who gets affected by the lack of adequate SWM? Why?
How can SWM be improved in Sri Lanka? Who needs to be involved?
Oct 15, 2010 Posted by Rohana Deva (Artistic Director, Thidora theatre)
English
Sinhala
Tamil
The moment we hear the word 'poverty', the first thing that comes to mind is starvation, lack of shelter, scarcity of educational and medical services and malnutrition. Considering the fact that our country is surrounded by the ocean and has abundant resources such as fish and possess rivers and lush natural water tanks, it is actually a wonder as to what really makes 'poverty' exist?
We would probably languish in the same way as long as we continue to depend on buying rice and other dry rations on credit from the small boutique in the junction without resorting to self-sufficiency by cultivating products from our very own garden.
One would say it is easier said than done and that, the real task would be putting it to action in the confined spaces one has, but then do we not see various horticultural plants in these very gardens? Therefore why is it not possible to grow something which can be thus consumed?
The sole reason for our languishment in poverty is lethargy and inefficiency. As long as one is weak at heart there is no rising out of poverty however much one may be offered assistance. We feel sympathy for the poor and we help them as much as we can. When we sympathize with the poor, we're only encouraging further languishment. It we offer empathy instead of sympathy they will undoubtedly be able to shed the shackles of poverty.
Shouldn't one really be analysing the validity of the calculating of the per capita income as a tool for measuring the development of a country? It would be quite farcical if one were to boast about it without considering the vicious cycle of the division of income. Does our society bear the proper understanding of the social activists' duty and the responsibility towards placing the proper strategies to the mental frustration and the discontentment that people possess which stem not only from monetary roots but also from other socio - economic trends as well?
According to the statistics of the World Health Organizations, 30% of the world population is mentally ill. While 35% to 40% of such cases in the first world states do not take any treatment for this, this figure is at about 75% in developing countries like ours and other poverty stricken countries. In a society as ours, the poverty alleviation programmes would find it difficult to meet their objectives since they are conducted without proper stimulation that would help in healing the wounded mentalities. Is it not the responsibility of the social activists' to mobilise programmes which strengthen knowledge and skills of the masses in addition to the elimination of hunger?
Therefore do you think that there is sufficient attention being paid to the enhancement of the mental happiness/mental health in the poverty alleviation programmes that have been undertaken by the Government and various other organisations?
Kala Suri (Expert in Arts) Rohana Deva
Chairman - Thidora Theatre
‘வறுமை’என்றசொல்லை நாம் செவிமடுக்கும் சந்தர்ப்பத்தில், எமதுஉள்ளத்தில் முதலில்தோன்றும் விடயங்களாக இருப்பது பட்டினி, உறையுள்இன்மை, கல்விமற்றும் மருத்துவசேவைகள் பற்றாக்குறை மற்றும் ஊட்டச்சத்துகுறைவுபோன்றனவாகும். கடலால்சூழப்பட்ட, மீன்பிடிப்பதற்கான வளங்கள் நிறைந்த, ஆறுகளும், இயற்கை நீர்வளங்களும், குளங்களும், கிணறுகளும் உள்ள எமது நாட்டில் ‘வறுமை’என்பது தொடர்ந்தும் நீடிக்கக்காரணம் என்ன?
எங்களுக்குசொந்தமான தோட்டத்தில் தன்னிறைவுக்கான போதிய உற்பத்திகளை மேற்கொள்வதற்கு முயற்சிசெய்யாது, எமது வீட்டிற்கு அருகில்உள்ள சந்தியில் அமைந்திருக்கும் கடையில் அரிசியையும், வேறு உலர் உணவுப்பொருட்களையும் கடனுக்குகொள்வனவு செய்வதிலேயே நாம்தொடர்ந்து தரித்திருக்கும்வரையில் நாம் நலிவடைந்தே இருப்போம்.
கதைப்பது இலகுவானது ஆனால் தம்மிடம் காணப்படும் சிறிய நிலப்பகுதியில் அதனை செயற்படுத்துவது கடினமாக இருக்கும் என ஒருவர் குறிப்பிடலாம். இந்ததோட்டங்களில் வேறுபட்ட தோட்டவியல் தாவரங்களை நாம் காண்பதில்லையா? அவ்வாறாயின், அந்த தோட்டங்களில் நுகரக்கூடியவற்றை பயிரிடுவது ஏன் சாத்தியமில்லை?
எங்களுடைய வறுமையின் நலிவுக்கான ஒரே காரணம் எங்களுடைய அக்கறையின்மையும், முயற்சியின்மையும்தான்.உளரீதியாக பலவீனமாக உள்ள ஒருவருக்கு, எவ்வளவு உதவிவழங்கினாலும் அதனால் பயன் ஏதும் இல்லை. வறியவர்களை கண்டு நாம் அனுதாபப்படுகின்றோம். எம்மால் இயன்றளவு அவர்களுக்கு உதவிசெய்கின்றோம். வறியவர்கள் மீது நாம் அனுதாபப்படுவதனால், அவர்களை நாம் மேலும் நலிவடையச்செய்கின்றோம். நாம் அவர்கள் மீது அனுதாபப்படுவதற்கு பதிலாக அவர்களுக்கு தொடர்ந்து வழங்கும் பச்சாதாபம் ஊடாக வறுமையின் சங்கிலியை அறுத்தெரிந்து வெளியில் வருவதற்கு அவர்களால் இயலும் என்பதில் ஐயமில்லை.
ஒரு நாட்டின் அபிவிருத்தியை கணிப்பிடுவதற்கான கருவியாக தனி நபர் வருமானத்தை அளவிடுவது செல்லுபடியானதா? என்பதனை பகுப்பாய்வு செய்யவேண்டுமல்லவா? வருமானப் பிரிவின் தவறான சக்கரம் குறித்து கவனஞ்செலுத்தாது, அதுகுறித்து உரத்தகுரலில் கதைப்பது நகைச்சுவையானது. வருமானஞ் சார்ந்ததாக மாத்திரமின்றி, வேறு சமூக,பொருளாதார முறைகளிலும் காணப்படும் மக்களிடம் உள்ள மன அழுத்தம் மற்றும் உளநிறைவின்மை என்பவற்றுக்கு முறையான மூலோபாயங்களை வடிவமைப்பது தொடர்பான சமூக நடவடிக்கையாளர்களின் கடமை மற்றும் பொறுப்புதொடர்பில் எமது சமூகத்திடம் முறையான புரிந்துணர்வு உள்ளதா?
உலக சுகாதார நிறுவனங்களின் புள்ளிவிபரங்களுக்கு அமைய, உலகசனத்தொகையில் 30% மானவர்கள் உளரீதியாக பாதிக்கப்பட்டவர்கள். அதேவேளை, செல்வந்த நாடுகளில் 35% இலிருந்து 40% மானவர்கள் இதன் பொருட்டுசிகிச்சை பெறுவதில்லை. வறியநாடுகளிலும், எம்மைப்போன்ற அபிவிருத்தி அடைந்துவரும் நாடுகளிலும் இந்த அளவு 75%ஆகக் காணப்படுகின்றது. எமது சமூகங்களில், மனநிலை பாதிப்புக்களை குணமாக்குவதற்கு உதவக்கூடிய முறையானதூண்டல்கள் இன்றி முன்னெடுக்கப்படுவதனால், வறுமை ஒழிப்புநிகழ்ச்சிகள் தமது குறிக்கோள்களை அடைவதில் சிக்கலை எதிர்நோக்குகின்றன. பட்டினியை ஒழிப்பதிலும்பார்க்க, அதுசார்ந்த அறிவையும், தகைமையையும் வலுப்படுத்தும் நிகழ்ச்சிகளை ஒன்றிணைக்கவேண்டியது சமூக நடவடிக்கையாளர்களின் பொறுப்பு இல்லையா?
எனவே, அரசாங்கத்தினாலும், வேறு பல நிறுவனங்களினாலும் முன்னெடுக்கப்பட்டுள்ள வறுமை ஒழிப்பு நிகழ்ச்சிகளில் மனமகிழ்ச்சி/மனநலம் என்பவற்றை மேம்படுத்துவது தொடர்பில் போதிய அவதானஞ்செலுத்தப்பட்டுள்ளதாக நீங்கள் எண்ணுகின்றீர்களா?
Jul 05, 2010 Posted by Sumadi Samaraweera (Lecturer, Sabaragamuwa University)
English
An individual holding dual or multiple jobs is defined as moonlighting. Today, moonlighting has become a key strategy among individuals in many developed and developing countries, where high competition exists to achieve economic goals. Moonlighting occurs when people are willing to work more hours than that demanded by their primary job with its fixed hours of work.
The poor, facing absolute or relative poverty, are one key group who are willing to moonlight to uplift their living conditions while professionals are another group for whom moonlighting plays a significant role. There are positive and negative factors with respect to this moonlighting. On the one hand, moonlighting encourages low income workers to earn more through for example, self employment than they could achieve merely with their primary employment, hence it would serve to uplift the living conditions of their families.
Moonlighting then seems to be a good solution for enhancing the earning potential of the working poor in the labor market. On the other hand, however others argue that workers who moonlight grab the employment opportunities, particularly of newcomers to the job market, and contribute to the high unemployment problem that worsens poverty. Moonlighting could also lower the equilibrium wage, through expanding the labour supply relative to demand.
In Sri Lanka 9.1% of the total employed are moonlighters according to the (Samaraweera and Rathnayake, (to be published) calculation based on data from CFS 2003/04) of which the majority are male. In Sri Lanka, the highest moonlighting rates are recorded for the primary educated group followed by graduates. 13.7% of the employees in the agricultural sector are reported to be moonlighters while 5.8% of industrial workers are also engaged in dual or multiple jobs. The impacts of moonlighting on the working poor, the unemployment rate and the wage levels, are some of the key policy concerns. Some questions that arise in this context are:
Could the unemployment problem in Sri Lanka be reduced through prohibiting moonlighting?
How does the wage rate of primary jobs influence in moonlighting?
How does the moonlighting affect wages in secondary employment?
Does moonlighting really benefit the working poor?
How does this affect the non -monetary aspects such as leisure, family relationships etc.
Moonlighting by professionals is the other side of the coin. Many professionals are attached to government sector bodies in Sri Lanka. Moonlighting reduces the enthusiasm and dedication of professionals for their first job and the financial benefits of the second job encourage them to do more evening work. Poor people however may have more access to such professionals when they engage in their primary job. Examples such as accessing the services of a medical specialist in a government hospital or a teacher in a government school come to mind.
The issue that then arises is, would prohibiting secondary occupations improve the quantity and quality of services accessible to the poor or would it have the reverse effect? The latter argument in arises in particular, because moonlighting opportunities helps to keep professionals in the government sector even at relatively low wage rate. This enhances the services available to the poor. Yet moonlighting by professionals can in turn create inefficiency in their primary job leading to negative influences on the services provided, including for the poor. The debate here centers on the issue
Feb 03, 2010 Posted by Amala de Silva (Senior Lecturer, University of Colombo)
English
Sri Lanka has achieved excellent health indicators in maternal and infant mortality, life expectancy and immunization. Yet malnutrition remains a major problem.
The intergenerational vicious cycle related to malnutrition has four main stages: (i) low birth weight infants; (ii) child growth failure; (iii) malnourished stunted adolescents and (iv) small statured malnourished reproductive age women. Detailed evidence exists on three components of the vicious cycle for Sri Lanka. The DHS 2006/2007 data that links malnutrition (both under and over nutrition) in women aged 15-49 (the reproductive age group), weight at birth and in children under five to the asset index clearly shows that malnutrition is linked to economic inequalities. The very lack of national level information on the third component of this cycle is an issue of importance. Small studies, anecdotal evidence and the continuing intergenerational cycle clearly indicate that adolescent malnutrition is a major problem in the country.
Why is malnutrition a problem today but a crisis tomorrow?
Malnourished children are likely to end up as stunted adults with lesser intellectual abilities and hence lower productivity. Given the challenge of demographic transition a countries growth depends on improved productivity. Firstly then from an economic as well as a humanitarian angle focusing on reducing malnutrition is a priority.
Secondly, evidence clearly indicates that malnutrition at all stages of the life cycle is linked with income inequality. Early childhood mortality is negatively linked to wealth levels (DHS 2006/2007). Most deaths in early childhood, in countries with safe delivery and high levels of immunization are linked to foetal growth, with abnormalities in nutrition being a major determinant. Breaking the intergenerational cycle of malnutrition could contribute significantly to breaking the intergenerational cycle of poverty and improving equity.
Thirdly breaking the vicious cycle between maternal malnutrition and low birth weight is particularly important now given the wide spread acceptance of the Barker hypothesis on NCDs (that maternal malnutrition leading to poor gestational growth of the foetus causes the individual’s metabolism to be unfit to cope with higher levels of nutrition and so more prone to NCDs). Non Communicable diseases (NCDs) have major health impacts and impose heavy economic burdens on the individual, household and the national health system, apart from the major psychic costs that result from NCD morbidity and mortality at early ages.
What then are the policy issues that emerge in this context? What measures should be taken to break the intergenerational cycle? What new measures would you propose?
Should the health system be focusing on adolescent nutrition and if so what measures would be appropriate?
While much discussion in policy circles is on the need for inter-sectoral coordination, in practice this component seems dormant. What mechanisms could ensure more systematic and dynamic coordination?
Malnutrition while closely related to food security still is still complicated by the fact that on the one hand malnutrition remains a problem even in non-poor settings and on the other that obesity (a non-communicable disease risk factor) is a problem even among the poor. What socio-cultural factors should be addressed in this regard?
Nov 09, 2009 Posted by Tehani Ariyaratne (Project Assistant, CEPA)
English
Cordaid, an international development organisation, launched a People in Need campaign with the following visuals in 2007. The visuals depict people modelling with consumer products that can be purchased in many outlets in different countries. The advertisement contains comparisons of the price of the item and the price of daily requirements for the people depicted in the visual as a way of conveying that it takes less to support someone in poverty than the money spent on such an item.
We would like to open a discussion about this campaign and obtain your views on it.
What do you think the campaign is trying to portray? Is it effective in what it conveys? Please explain
Who do you think the target audience is? Is the advertisement effective in influencing this audience?
Do the pictures adequately portray poverty? If so, in what way? Does it address facets of poverty such as employment, empowerment, safety etc?
Do the visuals provide an accurate depiction of poverty which is applicable to all global regions?
The article on contribution of agricultural insurance on livelihood of rural farmers (click here to read the article) submitted by Agricultural and Agrarian Insurance Board (AAIB) to the Poverty Portal highlights importance of agricultural insurance for a farmer to withstand adverse conditions. Further, the article addresses issues which are important to consider in the efforts of poverty reduction and improvement of livelihoods of rural farmers.
1. Lower participation of private sector in the agricultural insurance sector
2. Less demand for agricultural insurance from farmers due to lack of awareness of farmers
With the above views we would like to lead the discussion on
1. What are the factors needed to get greater support from the private sector offer insurance services to farmers?
2. What are the innovations that can be introduced to align the insurance to farmer needs?
3. How can we create a culture of use among farmers?
